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Why This Topic Is Important
Most young people who are arrested are not ultimately convicted of a crime, but those who experience police contact, detention, or incarceration are at increased risk for a number of negative outcomes that can have long-term consequences, such as mental and physical health problems, dropping out of school, difficulty with employment, and re-arrest (1, 2, 3). Research suggests that adolescence and young adulthood is a phase of development when young people are especially vulnerable to the impacts of law enforcement interaction, and has linked any length of detention or incarceration with a higher likelihood of poor physical and mental health in adulthood (1, 2).

Many youth enter the juvenile justice system with existing health problems. For example, young people with mental health disorders are at least three times more likely to have contact with the system than those without such conditions (3). More than 65% of youth arrested each year have mental illnesses, and many enter the justice system because health care or other systems are not meeting their needs (1, 4, 5). Further, the vast majority of these young people have experienced some form of trauma during childhood, and justice system involvement can re-traumatize them, creating further challenges for healthy development (1, 5, 6).

Juvenile justice involvement is not experienced equally across groups. Youth of color are consistently over-represented at every stage, from arrest to incarceration, and disparate treatment of children of color compared with their white peers has been documented widely (2, 3, 5). LGBTQ youth also are disproportionately represented in the justice system (5). These inequities not only affect individuals but also the families and communities around them (5, 6). Communities with high levels of youth incarceration typically also have higher rates of poverty and inadequate housing, health care, and other resources (3, 5). To achieve equitable treatment and opportunities for all young people, continued multisector efforts and investments are needed across systems and institutions, as well as an increased focus on providing hope, healing, and support (1, 3, 5).
For more information, see kidsdata.org’s Research & Links section.

Sources for this narrative:

1.  National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). The impact of juvenile justice system involvement on the health and well-being of youth, families, and communities of color. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26623/the-impact-of-juvenile-justice-system-involvement-on-the-health-and-well-being-of-youth-families-and-communities-of-color

2.  Jindal, M. (2023). Policing and overuse of the juvenile justice system. Pediatrics, 151(Suppl. 1), e2022057267G. Retrieved from: https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/151/Supplement%201/e2022057267G/191010/Policing-and-Overuse-of-the-Juvenile-Justice

3.  National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2023). Reducing racial inequality in crime and justice: Science, practice, and policy. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26705/reducing-racial-inequality-in-crime-and-justice-science-practice-and

4.  Wilkerson, J. (2022). How to use an integrated approach to address the mental health needs of youth in the justice system. Council of State Governments Justice Center. Retrieved from: https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/how-to-use-an-integrated-approach-to-address-the-mental-health-needs-of-youth-in-the-justice-system-2

5.  Cancio, R., et al. (2019). The color of justice: The landscape of traumatic justice. Alliance of National Psychological Associations for Racial and Ethnic Equity. Retrieved from: https://www.aecf.org/resources/the-color-of-justice

6.  Huei-Jong Graf, G., et al. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and justice system contact: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 147(1), e2020021030. Retrieved from: https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/147/1/e2020021030/77102/Adverse-Childhood-Experiences-and-Justice-System
Policy Implications
The juvenile justice system (JJS) is tasked with protecting the safety of youth and the public, holding offenders accountable in developmentally appropriate ways, and promoting positive behavior and rehabilitation. Policymakers and leaders from multiple sectors—including justice, education, child welfare, health care, and mental health—can play a role in improving the way society responds to youth behavioral problems and juvenile crime. The process for adjudicating youth offenders often does not have the intended effect on crime control, and does not consistently take into account risks to public safety or circumstances of the individual (1, 2, 3). Further, young people who are detained or incarcerated are at increased risk for a range of negative long-term outcomes (1, 2, 3, 4).

State and national reforms in recent decades have placed increasing emphasis on keeping youth out of the JJS, recognizing the harmful and often traumatizing effects of incarceration (1, 2, 4). And while juvenile arrests have generally declined statewide and nationally, rates of re-arrest are high and large racial/ethnic disparities remain, with youth of color experiencing persistent inequities and poorer outcomes compared with their white peers (1, 3, 4, 5).

Policy and practice options that could improve the JJS, reduce system involvement, and promote health and well being include:
  • Increasing cross-sector collaboration and action to minimize youth contact with law enforcement, connect them with community-based solutions, and keep them out of the JJS (1, 5, 6, 7)
  • Maintaining and expanding investments in a continuum of community-based services that prevent and respond to children's mental and behavioral health problems (1, 2, 6)
  • Recognizing that community disadvantage drives disparities in JJS involvement, and responding to structural inequities by increasing families’ access to job opportunities, safety net supports, high-quality early childhood and K–12 education, and other resources (2, 3)
  • Transforming the way criminal laws are enforced at the local level with the aim of addressing the disparate treatment of vulnerable groups, such as youth of color and LGBTQ youth; also, targeting the underlying social and cultural reasons for such treatment (3, 5)
  • Adopting equitable, non-punitive school discipline policies and practices that keep young people in school whenever possible and address disproportionate removal of students of color (1, 3)
  • Grounding JJS practices in an evidence-based understanding of adolescent development, and designing programs that respond to youth trauma through screenings, treatment, and prevention efforts (1, 3, 8, 9)
  • Advancing state and federal efforts to adopt a health-based approach to justice, focusing resources on strategies that place youth in appropriate programs with minimally restrictive environments, hold JJS agencies accountable for improved outcomes, address racial/ethnic disparities, and reduce recidivism (1, 2, 4)
  • Supporting, in accordance with California law, an effective transition from state-run institutions to community-based JJS models, ensuring adequate investments in local services, rehabilitative programming, and other alternatives to locked facilities (4)
  • Diverting youth from the JJS through community-centered, restorative justice approaches focused on non-adversarial practices, comprehensive treatment, and—instead of punishment—acknowledging accountability and taking action to repair harm (1, 2, 3, 9)
  • Improving systems of care to address the mental and behavioral health needs of youth involved in the JJS, including culturally responsive services at every point of contact; also, promoting a health equity focus that considers a young person's unique family and community context (1, 3, 8)
  • Continuing to reform the juvenile probation system so that it better engages families and communities, provides access to effective diversion programs, and sets probation conditions that are developmentally appropriate, individually tailored, and not excessive (4, 10, 11)
For more information, see kidsdata.org’s Research & Links section. Also see the following topics on kidsdata.org: School Attendance and Discipline, Gang Involvement, and School Climate.

Sources for this narrative:

1.  National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). The impact of juvenile justice system involvement on the health and well-being of youth, families, and communities of color. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26623/the-impact-of-juvenile-justice-system-involvement-on-the-health-and-well-being-of-youth-families-and-communities-of-color

2.  National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2023). Reducing racial inequality in crime and justice: Science, practice, and policy. National Academies Press. Retrieved from: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26705/reducing-racial-inequality-in-crime-and-justice-science-practice-and

3.  Cancio, R., et al. (2019). The color of justice: The landscape of traumatic justice. Alliance of National Psychological Associations for Racial and Ethnic Equity. Retrieved from: https://www.aecf.org/resources/the-color-of-justice

4.  Macallair, D., et al. (2023). Beyond repair: Envisioning a humane future after 132 years of brutality in California's youth prisons. Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice. Retrieved from: https://www.cjcj.org/reports-publications/report/beyond-repair

5.  Jindal, M. (2023). Policing and overuse of the juvenile justice system. Pediatrics, 151(Suppl. 1), e2022057267G. Retrieved from: https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/151/Supplement%201/e2022057267G/191010/Policing-and-Overuse-of-the-Juvenile-Justice

6.  Social Changery. (2023). Youth at the center: Calls-to-action for a reimagined behavioral health ecosystem from children, youth, and families across California. California Health and Human Services Agency, Children and Youth Behavioral Health Initiative. Retrieved from: https://cybhi.chhs.ca.gov/resource/youth-at-the-center-report

7.  Lantos, H., et al. (2022). Integrating positive youth development and racial equity, inclusion, and belonging approaches across the child welfare and justice systems. Child Trends. Retrieved from: https://www.childtrends.org/publications/integrating-positive-youth-development-and-racial-equity-inclusion-and-belonging-approaches-across-the-child-welfare-and-justice-systems

8.  Judicial Council of California, & National Center For Youth Law. (2023). Supporting the mental health and well-being of court-involved youth. Retrieved from: https://youthlaw.org/resources/mental-health-support-court-involved-youth

9.  Lopez Wright, F. (2021). Using trauma-informed restorative justice with youth. Council of State Governments Justice Center. Retrieved from: https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/using-trauma-informed-restorative-justice-with-youth

10.  Gozani, D., et al. (2021). Ending endless probation. W. Haywood Burns Institute & National Center For Youth Law. Retrieved from: https://youthlaw.org/resources/ending-endless-probation

11.  Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (n.d.). Probation reform: A tool kit for juvenile justice state advisory groups. Retrieved from: https://www.juvjustice.org/sites/default/files/resource-files/Probation%20Reform%20Toolkit-2.pdf
How Children Are Faring
Between 1980 and 2020, the felony arrest rate among California juveniles ages 10-17 fell by more than 90%, from 31.9 arrests per 1,000 youth to 2.7 per 1,000. Over the same period, a drop of more than two thirds was recorded in every county with data. After a further decline to 2.2 per 1,000 in 2021, two consecutive years of rising statewide rates followed in 2022 and 2023. Juveniles were arrested for felony offenses at a rate of 3.8 per 1,000 in 2023—similar to levels before the COVID-19 pandemic (3.9 per 1,000 in 2019). This two-year upswing is the first since 2007, and the largest since the late 1980s.

Juvenile felony arrest rates vary widely at the county level, from 1.4 arrests per 1,000 juveniles to 8.9 per 1,000 in 2023. African American/black youth are arrested for felonies at higher rates than their peers in other groups: Statewide, the rate of felony arrest among African American/black juveniles ages 10-17 in 2023 (18.5 per 1,000) was more than four times the rate for Hispanic/Latino juveniles (4.1 per 1,000) and almost ten times the rate for white juveniles (1.9 per 1,000). In 2023, African American/black and Hispanic/Latino youth accounted for nearly 80% of all felony arrests involving juveniles under age 18.

Violent offenses (assault, homicide, kidnapping, rape, and robbery) were the most common type of felony for which California youth were arrested in 2023, at 42%, followed by property offenses (e.g., arson, burglary, forgery, theft) at 27%, and drug/alcohol and sex offenses at 2% each; all other offenses (including driving under the influence, hit-and-run, and weapons violations) made up the remaining 27%. Statewide, boys account for the vast majority of felony arrests among youth under age 18—82% in 2023.